Grant Proposal

Birth Order and Procrastination in Young Adults

Does birth order truly determine success?

A recent study conducted in Norway analyzed test results and birth data from over 241,000 military transcripts and found that first born children had an average IQ of 103, middle children at 102, and third borns at 100 (Bonesrønning & Massih, 2011). Additionally, a survey conducted by CareerBuilder found that first borns are far more likely to make upwards of 100,000 dollars a year, as well as hold C-level positions (CEO, CFO, Senior VP, etc) compared to later borns, who will more likely hold a middle management position. So what can researchers truly conclude about the effects of birth order? Numerous studies have been conducted that demonstrate how birth order is one of the most effective indicators of many important life outcomes such as the types of jobs you acquire, the amount of friends you will have, and even romantic compatibility (McGuirk & Pettijohn, 2008). The majority of studies that are conducted in relation to birth order deal with two major developmental correlations: specific personality traits (motivation and sociability) and academic achievement (IQ scores and grades).

Although numerous studies have been conducted on birth order effects, there’s one important variable in particular that has not yet been accounted for through a successful study design—procrastination. Even though countless studies have shown that procrastination is one of the greatest predictors of academic achievement, especially as it relates to career success (Bonesrønning & Massih, 2011), there has yet to be a study that looks at the specific relationship between birth order and procrastination. It’s been shown that the level of procrastination in an individual is often linked to how easy or difficult a task is (Senecal et. al, 1997), which has many real-world applications in a job setting. For that reason, our purpose is to conduct a study in which an interaction will be tested between these three variables: birth order, difficulty of task, and procrastination.

In order to fully recognize the importance of highlighting procrastination and difficulty of task in relation to birth order, it’s essential to gain a full understanding of the research that’s already been conducted relative to birth order, personality traits, academic achievement, and procrastination.One of the most widely cited findings is the relationship between birth order and academic outcomes. One survey showed that first borns children have higher motivation to achieve academically compared to later born children (Srivastava, 2011). Likewise, this motivation often leads to greater academic achievements in adolescents. A study conducted on an entire population of fifth graders in Norway found that being a first born offers a significant advantage as it relates to academic achievement. In this survey, first borns were found to have higher grades than later born students, as well as higher IQ scores (Bonesrønning & Massih, 2011). These favorable academic outcomes are likely related to other notable differences in birth order, with the majority of researchers focusing on distinct personality differences between first borns, middle borns, and later borns.

There are several personality traits that are consistently found to be linked to birth order. First borns are said to be more highly motivated, conscientious, and are more likely to be perfectionists (Start & Start, 1974). Middle children are often good negotiators, have realistic expectations, and tend to be the most independent (Badger & Reddy, 2009). The youngest sibling is most often carefree, easygoing, affectionate and sociable (Badger & Reddy, 2009). Although the majority of studies look at first born, middle born, and last born children, this study will focus on the differences between first borns and later borns, as middle born children have similar characteristics to last born children, and the outcomes for first borns have been shown to create the largest achievement gap compared to middle and later borns (Srivastava, 2011).

In addition to achievement motivation and personality traits, there is a much bigger picture being looked at when analyzing birth order differences. What is truly remarkable is the difference in overall life outcomes for first borns compared to later borns. Not only are first borns receiving overall better grades (Bonesrønning & Massih, 2011) and are more highly motivated and conscientious (Srivastava, 2011), but they also are shown as attaining more prestigious careers and making more money over the course of their lifespan (Stuart & Eckstein, 2012). Although first borns are doing better academically and in their careers, later borns aren’t completely being ignored. Later borns, although less academically achieved, have been shown to get along better with others, and be happier in their careers than first borns (Stuart & Eckstein, 2012).

Because birth order is such a well-cited predictor of outcome variable as important as academic achievement, personality traits, and overall career success, many researchers have looked into possible causes of these differences, both biological and environmental. Although several studies have linked birth order to certain biological differences, the key theories explaining these differences are attributed mainly to environmental differences. These two major theories, confluence theory and the resource dilution model, have guided research on birth order effects and have helped explain not only why these effects may occur, but also how they can be changed. Confluence theory involves two findings. The first is that smaller families and those with first borns tend to have a higher intellectual environment for the child. Secondly, older siblings develop enhanced intellectual capabilities because they act as tutors for either younger siblings. These factors both contribute to the intellectual growth and maturity of children and young adults; the first negatively, and the second positively. (Rice et. al, 2012). The second theory, the resource dilution model, states that the resources within families, like time, energy, money, and more are limited and; therefore, the larger the family, the more diluted the resources become (Downey, 2001). To test this theory more specifically, one study looked at the differences in the quality of parenting across first-born and second-born children, and found that firstborn children get an average of 20 more minutes of quality father time and 25 more minutes of quality mother time a day compared to later born children (Price, 2008). This leads to a difference over approximately 3000 hours by the time a child reaches 13 (Price, 2008).

Overall, it seems that much is known about the relation of birth order to academic achievement, personality traits, career outlook, and the theories behind why the differences are so immense. It’s been cited numerous times that first borns have the greatest life outcomes because they are more likely to have a perfectionist-type personality (Badger & Reddy, 2009), receive good grades in school and achieve high IQ scores (Bonesrønning & Massih, 2011), and will likely hold higher level positions (Stuart & Eckstein, 2012), with later borns showing more carefree personalities (Badger & Reddy, 2009), lower grades and IQ scores (Bonesrønning & Massih, 2011), and more typical middle-level jobs (Stuart & Eckstein, 2012).

Even though there are countless studies relating to birth order, achievement, personality traits, and the theories behind those differences, there is still much to be learned about this topic. Specifically, there has yet to be a study examining the relationship between birth order and procrastination. Some research suggests that procrastination is important in determining academic success and life outcomes such as careers and monetary salary. A survey given to male students ages 12-16 showed that there was there was a negative relationship between academic achievement and procrastination (Owens & Newbegin, 1997). Additionally, certain personality traits that are linked to later-borns, such as an easy-going attitude, are more likely to correlate with procrastination levels than the characteristics of first borns (Senecal et. al, 1997). For that reason, it seems that procrastination would be an important and relevant variable to analyze in relation to birth order. Lastly, it has been shown that the level of difficulty of a task is one of the greatest indicators of how long a person will procrastinate in completing a task. In a 1997 study, 58 undergraduate females completed an academic procrastination scale and were assigned to either a boring and difficult task or a fun, easy task. The results showed that those in the adverse task condition took significantly longer to complete the task than those in the easy task condition (Senecal et. al, 1997). Because we are interested in mainly academic and success outcomes later in life, it’s going to be important to create a test comparing easy to difficult tasks in relation to both procrastination level and birth order. Finally, this study will focus on adolescents, as this is where the majority of research has taken place, and it’s reasonable to assume that procrastination can have a great affect on students’ grades in high school and the colleges they may or may not be accepted to.

The current study will address this major gap in literature, as it aims to analyze the relationship between birth order, difficulty of task, and procrastination. It’s the goal of the researchers to create a comprehensive observational study which can affectively separate subjects categorically by birth order and condition, and correctly measure procrastination in a reliable and valid fashion. The research questions to be addressed are as follows: (1) Is there a relationship between birth order and level of procrastination? (2) Is there a relationship between level of difficulty of the task and procrastination? And (3) Is there a interaction effect for birth order and difficulty of task on procrastination? We hypothesize that (1) first borns will be less likely to procrastinate compared to later borns, (2) the more difficult a task is, the more likely a person will be to procrastinate, and (3) there will be an interaction effect for birth order and difficulty of task on procrastination: first borns will be less affected by the difficulty of the task, and will procrastinate less, whereas later borns will be more affected by the difficulty of the task and will procrastinate more.

If our hypothesis is supported, this will provide insight to further understand why there are such large gaps between first born and later born children in terms of their academic achievement and life outcomes. This study will serve as a step towards aiding parents, teachers, and students in better understanding the specific causes for this achievement gap, such as a tendency to procrastinate on more difficult tasks, and it will be easier to take steps towards helping later borns achieve just as highly as first borns. Additionally, by analyzing how the difficulty of the task relates to birth order and procrastination, we can relate lab-setting tasks to real world tasks and we will be able to create more efficient solutions in addressing procrastination and the negative outcomes it can cause.

Method

Participants

The anticipated sample size will be 150 subjects, approximately half male and half female, between the ages of 15 and 16. Subjects will be recruited from a high school serving a mostly Caucasian middle class population in a large western city. The school principal must grant permission for researchers to mail parental consent forms to the high school students’ parents the fall semester prior to the winter scheduled data collection. 1000 consent forms will be mailed to the parents of sophomore and junior year students who will be either age 15 or 16 during the winter semester that school year. The anticipated return rate is 15%, and the confirmed participants will be briefed on their rights as subjects in the study. Specifically, it will be made clear that they can resign at any point throughout the study. Additionally, researchers will inform the subjects that they will be briefed at the conclusion of the study, but until then, the purpose will remain ambiguous to prevent any response bias.

Materials/Procedures

Participants will be divided into two groups: First borns and later borns. First Borns will include “only” children and those who are the first-born in their family (N=55). Later Borns will include subjects who are the second or later born in their family (N=95). Within birth order, all participants will be randomly assigned to one of two task conditions (1 or 2) as follows: First born (Task Condition 1, Easy: N=27; Task Condition 2, Difficult: N=28); Later born (Task Condition 1, Easy: N=47; Task Condition 2, Difficult: N=48).

Over a one hour time span, subjects will be put in a “quiet room” which will have one bed, a cable television, several books, a pen and paper, a laptop computer with full internet access, and a fully stocked refrigerator. Over the course of the hour, researchers will observe the subjects through a one-way glass mirror, and the subjects will be timed to see when they began their tasks. Upon completion of the one-hour observation, the researchers will return to the room and ask their subjects to complete a 50 question survey which will also measure procrastination.

Once the subjects have been confirmed, they will be scheduled during an after-school time slot over the course of a two week time span. When the researchers arrive at the lab, they will be escorted by the researcher to the “quiet room” where they will be instructed to complete a 5 minute survey asking questions regarding their address, grade in school, birth order, and food consumption for the day. The researcher will then collect the survey and return with the task condition that is randomly through a random digit generator. The researcher will then instruct the subject that they are to spend one hour in the room, and during that hour, they must complete the tasks they are assigned. The researcher will make it clear to the subjects that they can complete the tasks at their leisure; however, they cannot leave early if they finish before the hour is complete. After the subjects complete the hour long observation, as well as the 50 question survey upon completion of the observation, they will be briefed on the purpose of the study and given a forty dollar visa gift card as compensation for their time.

Measures

Half of the subjects will be presented with “easy” tasks (1) and half will be presented with “difficult” tasks (2). The easy condition consists of a list of ten 2-digit multiplication problems and a 10x10 puzzle. The hard condition consists of a list of ten 3-4 digit multiplication problems and a 20x20 puzzle. The questionnaire that will be used upon completion of the one-hour observation will include various questions regarding the subject’s interests, family life, and general happiness. Mixed in with these distracter questions will be questions taken directly from the 19-item Aiken’s Procrastination Inventory. This inventory is commonly used in research studies to measure self-reported procrastination among individuals, and has been shown to be both valid and reliable. The questionnaire given to the subjects will be 50 questions in total, with all 19 questions from the Aiken Inventory being used. The questionnaire will follow a 5 point scale, with responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Example questions taken from the Aiken Inventory would be: “I often finish work before it is due”, “I don’t delay when I know I really need to get the job done”, and “I am often late to my appointments and meetings”. An example distracter question is: “I am a good cook” (See Appendix).

Subjects will be scored in several ways. After participants are placed in either the “first born” or “later born” category, they will be given either the easy condition (1), or difficult condition (2). For both conditions, the researchers will observe the subjects and use a timer to determine how many minutes it takes the student to begin the task. Each subject will be given a number based off how many minutes it takes them to complete the task. A low number will reflect little to no procrastination, with increasingly larger numbers indicating a tendency to procrastinate more. Additionally, subjects will receive a numerical score based on their answers to the questionnaire, with only the 19 questions taken from Aiken’s Procrastination Inventory being counted towards their score. Because each of the 19 questions will have the possibility of adding up to five points to a subject’s score (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree), subjects’ scores will range from 19-95, with larger scores signifying more procrastination. These scores will then be added together to create one overall procrastination score. Once the scores are totaled, the possible range of scores for overall procrastination will be 19-155. They will then be analyzed through an ANOVA (analysis of variance) to determine their relationship and significance.

Data Analysis Plan

This study aims to discover if birth order and level of difficulty of task will determine a student’s level of procrastination. This study is based off the hypothesis that first born children will procrastinate less than later born children, those receiving the difficult task will procrastinate more, and that there will be less of an effect between easy and difficult tasks for first born subjects compared to the later born subjects. This hypothesis is based off the results of prior research.

This study is a 2x2 design, with two independent variables and one dependent variable that is tested by two separate measures. The first independent variable, birth order, is categorical. Subjects will either fall into the “first born” category or “later born” category. Additionally, the condition that subjects receive (the difficulty of task), is a categorical independent variable in this study. Subjects will either be placed in the “easy” condition (1), or “difficult” condition (2). The dependent variable being studied is procrastination, which is measured in two different ways. First, procrastination is measured continuously by assigning subjects a numerical score based on the number of minutes it takes them to begin the task. A participant’s procrastination level will also be measured continuously through the questionnaire given upon completion of the observation, with higher scores from Aitken’s Procrastination Inventory indicating more procrastination. Prior to analyzing the results, a test will be done to measure the correlation between the two measures of procrastination. As they are both continuous variables with higher scores indicating more procrastination, it’s predicted that they will have a high positive correlation. Because of this, the two measures of procrastination will be combined to create one overall score for the dependent variable. This study involves two independent variables and one dependent variable; therefore, a two-way ANOVA with birth order (2: first born, later born) and condition (2: easy task, difficult task) will be used for the combined procrastination score of the amount of time it takes to begin the task, as well as the score subjects will receive on the Aiken’s Procrastination Inventory. The alpha level will be set at p <.05 to ensure the results are statistically significant and not simply due to chance.

It’s predicted that the data will support a main effect for birth order: First born students (M=30.3, SD=3.40) will likely receive lower combined procrastination scores than later born students (M=45.6, SD=5.51). There will also likely be a main effect for condition: participants with the easy task will receive lower overall procrastination scores (M=32.6, SD=4.23) than those doing the difficult task (M=41.5, SD=2.31). These results would support the prediction that first born students will receive lower procrastination scores than later borns, and participants in the easy task condition will receive lower procrastination scores than those in the difficult task.

An interaction effect will be tested for by condition (2*2) on procrastination in the ANOVA. It is predicted that the difficulty of task will have a greater effect on the later born students compared to the first born students. The ANOVA will likely reveal that there is a significant interaction between birth order and condition on the overall procrastination score, F(1,150)=.561, p=.034 (Figure 1). This level of significance will indicate that the effect for condition does depend on the birth order of the student. These results would confirm the hypothesis that first born children are less affected by the difficulty of task than the later born children, and they take less time overall to begin the task.

Largely, this study has the potential to show that: (1) First born subjects will receive a lower procrastination score than later born subjects, (2) Subjects given the “easy” task will be receive a lower procrastination score than subjects given the “difficult” task, and (3) there will be a interaction effect between birth order and condition on overall procrastination scores. Essentially, this study could potentially point out the affect of birth order on not only procrastination, but how affected a person is by the difficulty of the task. If this is found, that will tackle a large gap in birth order literature and could potentially help parents, teachers, and students address the birth order achievement gap in a more effective manner.

References

Badger, J., & Reddy, P. (2009). The effects of birth order on personality traits and feelings of academic sibling rivalry. Psychology Teaching Review, 15(1), 45-54.

Bonesrønning, H., & Massih, S. (2011). Birth order effects on young students’ academic achievement. The Journal Of Socio-Economics, 40(6), 824-832. doi:10.1016/j.socec.2011.08.010

Downey, D. B. (2001). Number of siblings and intellectual development: The resource dilution explanation. American Psychologist, 56(6-7), 497-504. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.6-7.497

McGuirk, E. M., & Pettijohn, T. (2008). Birth order and romantic relationship styles and attitudes in college students. North American Journal Of Psychology, 10(1), 37-52. Birth order and romantic relationships

Owens, A. M., & Newbegin, I. (1997). Procrastination in high school achievement: A causal structural model. Journal Of Social Behavior & Personality, 12(4), 869-887.

Price, J. (2008). Parent-Child quality time. Journal of Human Resources, 43(1):240–265.

Rice, S., Trafimow, D., Keller, D., & Bean, N. (2012). Confluence theory: Uniting two houses divided. Theoretical Issues In Ergonomics Science, 13(4), 411-429. doi:10.1080/1463922X.2010.525760

Senécal, C., Lavoie, K., & Koestner, R. (1997). Trait and situational factors in procrastination: An interactional model. Journal Of Social Behavior & Personality, 12(4), 889-903.

Srivastava, S. K. (2011). Study the effect of achievement motivation among birth orders. Journal of Psychosocial Research, 6(2), 169-178. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy.lib.umich.edu/docview/926587433?accountid=14667

Start, A., & Start, K. B. (1974). The relation between birth order and effort or conscientiousness among primary school children. Research In Education, 121-8.

Stewart, A. E., & Eckstein, D. (2012). Birth order within individual psychology. The Journal Of Individual Psychology, 68(1), 1-3.

Appendix

Questionnaire To Measure Procrastination

1. I am a happy person

2. I delay starting things until the last minute

3. I enjoy being active on a day to day basis

4. I have supportive family and friends

5. I’m careful to return library books on time

6. I am a good cook

7. Even when I know a job needs to be done, I never want to start it right away

8. I have been on many vacations in my life

9. I keep up to date with the latest clothing fashions

10. I keep my assignments up to date by doing my work regularly from day to day

11. I am supportive of my family and friends

12. If there was a workshop that would help me learn not to put off starting my work, I would go

13. I am a quick learner

14. I attend a lot of parties

15. I am often late for my appointments and meetings

16. I use the vacant hours between classes to get started on my evening’s work

17. I enjoy being social

18. I enjoy action movies over comedies

19. Reading fiction books are a waste of time

20. I delay starting things so long I don’t get them done by the deadline.

21. I tend to have a hard time falling asleep at night

22. I wake up early compared to others

23. I am often frantically rushing to meet deadlines

24. I never lie to others

25. I believe people care about my well being

26. I am in a successful romantic relationship

27. It often takes me a long time to get started on something

28. I am a successful person

29. I don’t delay when I know I really need to get the job done

30. If I had an important project to do, I’d get started on it as quickly as possible

31. I often feel sick when I know I’m probably not really ill

32. I am happy with the way my life has played out thus far

33. I am confident in my future career

34. When I have a test scheduled soon, I often find myself working on other jobs when a deadline is near

35. I often feel anxious

36. I put others down to make myself feel better

37. I am close with my family

38. I often finish my work before it is due.

39. I am self-conscious about my appearance

40. I enjoy art and design

41. I get right to work at jobs that need to be done

42. I am good with tools

43. I believe others look up to me

44. If I have an important appointment, I make sure the clothes I want to wear are ready the day before

45. I have seen more movies than the average person my age

46. I arrive at college appointments with plenty of time to spare

47. I am controlling of those around me

48. I generally arrive on time to class

49. I often have health problems

50. I overestimate the amount of work that I can do in a given amount of time

Figure 1.

Combined procrastination score (Aikens Inventory Score + Minutes taken to begin task). This figure displays the procrastination score separated by “easy” and “hard” tasks, as well as birth order.